Characterization of Coordinated Behavior

Distribution of works focused on different types of coordinated behavior, categorized based on the defining dimensions of authenticity, harmfulness, orchestration, and time-variance. Vertical bars show the number of works for each combination of dimensions, while horizontal bars show the number of works for each individual dimension. Only combinations covered by 2+ works are shown.

Figure 11 in survey

Behavior Dimensions

Select an intersection bar or a set-size row to inspect the matching papers.

Distribution of works based on the combination of analyzed platforms. The vast majority of works analyzed a single platform, mainly Twitter/X. Only a few works performed cross-platform analyses, represented by multiple connected dots.

Figure 10 in survey

Analyzed Platforms

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Characterization Indicators

Indicators used for characterizing coordinated behavior. For each group of indicators we report the works that used them, the high-level concept implemented, and the defining dimensions of coordination for which the indicators provide used, or could provide potential, information. Table rows are grouped based on the type of information (i.e., user, content, network) leveraged by the indicator.

22rows

data/source/tables/tab_characterization_measures.csvOpen source CSV

Indicator Group	Reference	Concept	Indicators	Authenticity	Harmfulness	Orchestration	Time	Other
user	assenmacher2020twobellutta2023investigating +16 assenmacher2020twobellutta2023investigatingchomel2023manipulationdanaditya2022curiousgraham2020likehristakieva2022spreadng2022combinedng2022onlineng2023younizzoli2021coordinatedpacheco2020unveilingpacheco2021uncoveringweber2021amplifyingtardelli2024multifacetedde2024detectingneha2024understandingng2024tinyzouzou2024unsupervised	automation	bot scores		-	-		-
user	hristakieva2022spreadlinhares2022uncovering +11 hristakieva2022spreadlinhares2022uncoveringlee2013campaignng2022onlinenizzoli2021coordinatedschliebs2021chinatardelli2024multifacetedgruzd2022coordinatedyu2022frameworkde2024detectingsharma2021identifyingzhang2021vigdetneha2024understanding	moderation	suspended users	-		-		-
user	ng2022online	username diversity	entropy		-	-		-
user	schliebs2021chinablas2025large +2 schliebs2021chinablas2025largematsuzaki2025edcockulichkina2026connective	activity	account creation burstiness		-	-		-
user	burghardt2024sociocresci2019cashtag +14 burghardt2024sociocresci2019cashtagdanaditya2022curiouskeller2020politicallee2013campaignschliebs2021chinaschoch2022coordinationvargas2020detectionwang2023evidenceweber2021amplifyingghasiya2022rapidrighetti2022politicalvenancio2024unravelingsteinert2015onlinekeller2017manipulatejakesch2021trend	activity	number of posts, retweets	-	-	-
user	righetti2022politicalvenancio2024unraveling +1 righetti2022politicalvenancio2024unravelinguyheng2022mapping	engagement	number of views, likes	-	-	-
user	chomel2023manipulationpacheco2020unveiling +5 chomel2023manipulationpacheco2020unveilingbroniatowski2021towardsjakesch2021trendantonakaki2026coordinatedyang2025coordinatedkulichkina2026connective	timings	action time interval		-
content	burghardt2024sociobellutta2023investigating +26 burghardt2024sociobellutta2023investigatingdanaditya2022curiousng2022crossng2022onlineng2023coordinatedvenancio2024unravelingzhang2021vigdetwang2023evidenceweber2020whoweber2021amplifyingsaeed2024tuberaidercresci2019cashtagnizzoli2021coordinatedkeller2017manipulatesharma2021identifyingzhang2021vigdetdey2024coordinatedneha2024understandingmanchanayaka2025usingblas2025largecinus2025exposingsong2025spreadwu2025unmaskinguyheng2022mappingkulichkina2026connectiveelmas2026israelkansaon2025fake	socio-linguistics	attitudes, concerns, emotions, stances, topics, words	-		-
content	weber2020whoweber2021amplifying +2 weber2020whoweber2021amplifyingng2023coordinatedjakesch2021trend	repetitiveness	text similarity scores	-
content	suresh2023trackingtardelli2024temporal	socio-linguistics	topic and hashtag evolution	-		-
content	cao2015organicgiglietto2020takes	news diversity	entropy, Gini coefficient	-	-
content	wang2023evidencegiglietto2020coordinated +2 wang2023evidencegiglietto2020coordinatedbellutta2023investigatingcinus2025exposing	news reliability	suspended and blacklisted URLs	-		-		-
content	righetti2022politicaltardelli2024multifaceted +5 righetti2022politicaltardelli2024multifacetedbarbero2023multibellutta2023investigatingcinus2025exposingsong2025spreadyang2025coordinated	news reliability	NewsGuard and MBFC scores	-		-		-
content	hristakieva2022spreadmatsuzaki2025edcoc	manipulation	propaganda scores	-		-		-
content	loru2024influencesaeed2024tuberaider +1 loru2024influencesaeed2024tuberaiderelmas2026israel	offensiveness	toxicity scores	-		-		-
content	loru2024influencenizzoli2021coordinated +3 loru2024influencenizzoli2021coordinatedkulichkina2025protesttardelli2024multifacetedtardelli2024temporal	political bias	MBFC scores, hashtag bias	-	-	-
content	cinus2025exposing	fake content	AI-generated	-		-	-	-
content	chomel2023manipulationhristakieva2022spread +10 chomel2023manipulationhristakieva2022spreadloru2024influenceng2022combinedng2022onlineng2023coordinatednizzoli2021coordinatedtardelli2024multifacetedcima2024coordinatedkulichkina2025protestneha2024understandingmatsuzaki2025edcoc	coordination	edge weights	-	-
network	ng2023yougiglietto2020takes +11 ng2023yougiglietto2020takesgraham2024coordinationkulichkina2025protestcinelli2022coordinateddi2025postpacheco2020unveilingkirdemir2022towardsng2023coordinatedde2024detectingvenancio2024unravelingneha2024understandingkuznetsova2025amplifying	influence	centrality scores	-	-			-
network	cresci2019cashtagnizzoli2021coordinated +3 cresci2019cashtagnizzoli2021coordinatedcima2024coordinatedneha2024understandingwu2025unmasking	homophily	assortativity	-	-			-
network	kirdemir2022towardsng2022coordinated +10 kirdemir2022towardsng2022coordinatednizzoli2021coordinatedgiglietto2020takesgraham2024coordinationng2023youkulichkina2025protestng2023coordinatedcima2024coordinatedde2024detectingneha2024understandingsong2025spread	cohesiveness	clustering coefficient, modularity, density	-	-			-
network	tardelli2024temporallinhares2022uncovering	stationarity	user influx and outflux, user evolution	-	-	-		-